Backshift the Sequence-of-Tense Rule in English

In English grammar, backshift is the changing of a present tense to a past tense following a past form of a reporting verb. Also known as the sequence-of-tense rule. Backshift (or backshifting) may also occur when a verb in a subordinate clause is affected by the past tense in the main clause. Chalker and Weiner offer an example of backshift where logically the present tense would be used: I didnt apply for the job, although I was female and had the right degree (Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, 1994). See Examples and Observations below. Also, see: Indirect SpeechSequence of Tenses (SOT)TenseTense Shift Examples and Observations Notice the contrast between has and had in this pair: i Kim has blue eyes. [original utterance: present tense]ii I told Stacy that Kim had blue eyes. [indirect report: preterite] If I say [i] to Stacy, I can use [ii] as an indirect report to tell you what I said to Stacy. . . . My utterance to Stacy contained the present tense form has, but my report of it contains preterite had. Nonetheless, my report is entirely accurate. This kind of change in tense is referred to as backshift.The most obvious cases of backshift are with verbs of reporting that are in the preterite, like told or said. . . .[B]ackshift also happens quite generally in constructions where one clause is embedded within a larger one containing a preterite verb: i Stacy didnt know that Kim had blue eyes.ii I wondered at the time whether they were genuine.iii I wish I knew if these paintings were genuine. All the [highlighted] verbs have backshifted tense.(Rodney D. Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, A Students Introduct ion To English Grammar. Cambridge University Press, 2005)Backshifting occurs not only with indirect speech, but also with reported feelings and thoughts expressed frequently with verbs such as know, think, realize, and forget. (19a) She knows that we are meeting tomorrow.(19b) She knew that we were meeting tomorrow. In (19a) the reporting verb (knows) is in the present tense, as is the verb in the reported clause (are). In (19b), when the reporting verb is past tense (knew), the verb in the reported clause is backshifted to past tense (were). Note that the time of the situation (we are meeting) has not changed; it remains in the future.(Dee Ann Holisky, Notes on Grammar. Orchises Press, 1997)Exceptions to Backshifting- In certain situations, the sequence of tense rules are relaxed and backshifting is not required. Essentially, backshifting is not required if a statement about the present or future still holds. . . .A shift is not necessary if: - the original statement is a general t ruth.Torrecelli concluded that the atmosphere is/was a sea of air pressing down on the earth.- the speaker is reporting something that is still true.Fred said he drives/drove a 1956 Belchfire Special.- the speaker is reporting something still possible for the future:The forecast said we will/would be having lots of rain.- the speaker repeats something he or she just said.John: I like opera.Bill: What did you say?John: I said I like opera. (Ron Cowan, The Teachers Grammar of English: A Course Book and Reference Guide. Cambridge University Press, 2008)- Backshift . . . is optional when what was said applies equally at the time of reporting: Benjamin said that he is/was coming over to watch television tonight. Such traditional shifts are not, however, used in certain types of relaxed, colloquial reporting and storytelling: Then he says hes coming and she says that he could come or not for all she cared.(Tom McArthur, Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford University P ress, 2005) Also Known As: backshifting, sequence-of-tense (SOT) rule, succession of tenses

The History of Domestication for Broomcorn Millet

Broomcorn or broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), also known as proso millet, panic millet, and wild millet, is today primarily considered a weed suitable for birdseed. But it contains more protein than most other grains, is high in minerals and easily digested, and has a pleasant nutty taste. Millet can be ground up into flour for bread or used as a grain in recipes as a replacement for buckwheat, quinoa or rice. Broomcorn History Broomcorn was a seed grain used by hunter-gatherers in China at least as long ago as 10,000 years. It was first domesticated in China, probably in the Yellow River valley, about 8000 BP, and spread outward from there into Asia, Europe, and Africa. Although the ancestral form of the plant has not been identified, a weedy form native to the region called P. m. subspecies ruderale) is still found throughout Eurasia. Broomcorn domestication is believed to have taken place about 8000 BP. Stable isotope studies of human remains at sites such as Jiahu, Banpo, Xinglongwa, Dadiwan, and Xiaojingshan suggest that while millet agriculture was present ca 8000 BP, it did not become a dominant crop until about a thousand years later, during the Middle Neolithic (Yangshao). Evidence for Broomcorn Broomcorn remains which suggests a highly developed millet-based agriculture have been found at several sites associated with Middle Neolithic (7500-5000 BP) cultures including the Peiligang culture in Henan province, the Dadiwan culture of Gansu province and the Xinle culture in Liaoning province. The Cishan site, in particular, had more than 80 storage pits filled with millet husk ashes, totaling an estimated 50 tons of millet. Stone tools associated with millet agriculture include tongue-shaped stone shovels, chisel-edged sickles and stone grinders. A stone millstone and grinder were recovered from the early Neolithic Nanzhuangtou site dated to 9000 BP. By 5000 BC, broomcorn millet was flourishing west of the Black Sea, where there are at least 20 published sites with archaeological evidence for the crop, such as the Gomolava site in the Balkans. The earliest evidence in central Eurasia is from the site of Begash in Kazakhstan, where direct-dated millet seeds date to ca 2200 cal BC. Recent Archaeology Studies of Broomcorn Recent studies comparing the differences of grains a broomcorn millet from archaeological sites often vary a great deal, making them difficult to identify in some contexts. Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute and colleagues reported in 2012 that millet seeds are smaller in response to environmental factors, but relative size also can reflect the immaturity of the grain. depending on charring temperature, immature grains can be preserved, and such size variation should not rule out identification as broomcorn. Broomcorn millet seeds were recently found at the central Eurasian site of Begash, Kazakhstan, and Spengler et al. (2014) argue that this represents evidence for the transmission of broomcorn outside of China and into the broader world. See also Lightfoot, Liu, and Jones for an interesting article on the isotopic evidence for millet across Eurasia. Sources and Further Information Bettinger RL, Barton L, and Morgan C. 2010. The origins of food production in north China: A different kind of agricultural revolution. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 19(1):9-21.Bumgarner, Marlene Anne. 1997. Millet. Pp. 179-192 in The New Book of Whole Grains. Macmillan, New York.Frachetti MD, Spengler RN, Fritz GJ, and Maryashev AN. 2010. Earliest direct evidence for broomcorn millet and wheat in the central Eurasian steppe region. Antiquity 84(326):993–1010.Hu, Yaowu, et al. 2008 Stable isotope analysis of humans from Xiaojingshan site: implications for understanding the origin of millet agriculture in China. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(11):2960-2965.Jacob J, Disnar J-R, Arnaud F, Chapron E, Debret M, Lallier-Vergà ¨s E, Desmet M, and Revel-Rolland M. 2008. Millet cultivation history in the French Alps as evidenced by a sedimentary molecule. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(3):814-820.Jones, Martin K. and Xinli Liu 2009 Origins of Agricul ture in East Asia. Science 324:730-731.Lightfoot E, Liu X, and Jones MK. 2013. Why move starchy cereals? A review of the isotopic evidence for prehistoric millet consumption across Eurasia. World Archaeology 45(4):574-623. doi: 10.1080/00438243.2013.852070Lu, Tracey L.-D. 2007 Mid-Holocene climate and cultural dynamics in eastern Central China. Pp. 297-329 in Climate Change and Cultural Dynamics: A Global Perspective on Mid-Holocene Transitions, edited by D. G. Anderson, K.A. Maasch and D.H. Sandweiss. Elsevier: London.Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute G, Hunt H, and Jones M. 2012. Experimental approaches to understanding variation in grain size in Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and its relevance for interpreting archaeobotanical assemblages. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 21(1):69-77.Pearsall, Deborah M.2008 Plant domestication. Pp. 1822-1842 In Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Edited by D. M. Pearsall. Elsevier, Inc., London.Song J, Zhao Z, and Fuller DQ. 2013. The archaeobotanical significance of immature millet grains: an experimental case study of Chinese millet crop processing. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22(2):141-152.Spengler III RN, Frachetti M, Doumani P, Rouse L, Cerasetti B, Bullion E, and Maryashev A. 2014. Early agriculture and crop transmission among Bronze Age mobile pastoralists of Central Eurasia. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281(1783). doi: 10.1098/rspb.2013.3382USDA. Panicum millaceum (broomcorn millet) Accessed 05/08/2009.Yan, Wenming. 2004. The Cradle of Eastern Civilization. pp 49-75 In Yang, Xiaoneng. 2004. Chinese Archaeology in the Twentieth Century: New Perspectives on Chinas Past (vol 1). Yale University Press, New Haven

Persuasive Essay On School Uniforms - 723 Words

Imagine a world where from the moment you are born, there is a role that you are forced to fit, a society where your freedom of choice, expression, and individuality are ripped from your grasp. Although some critics may argue that it should be mandatory for students to wear uniforms, they have evidently been misled. Uniforms kill individuality and creativity, are too expensive for some, and can lower both self-esteem and performance of students in school. Many critics are bringing to light the crisis of dropping individuality and creativity; we cannot afford let it plummet any further. School uniforms destroy diversity and kill courage, on top of preventing individual student expression. In addition, school uniforms provide an almost jail†¦show more content†¦Having to pay for an expensive $600 school uniform would do nothing but hinder their education as well as their chances for a brighter future. According to expert statistics provided by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015, 1 4.5% of American families were living below the poverty line. Thats over 45 million Americans that cannot spare money for school uniforms. Furthermore, these families might be ones who have recently immigrated to the United States looking for a new start or are struggling to support their loved ones. Trivial things such as school uniforms should not be the reason why students cannot attend school or are ostracised by their peers. Above all, uniforms can severely lower both self-esteem and performance in students. According to a study done by Karen Pine, a professor and researcher in psychology, â€Å"[When wearing heroic clothing] not only did it make [people] more confident, but it also made them actually think they were physically stronger... the students rated themselves as more likeable and superior to other students.† Essentially, Pine is attempting to convey that a person’s attire affects their confidence and how they perform. It is the mentality of the person that affects their overall performance during the day. School uniforms are proven to have lowered the confidence and overall achievement. Pine further goes on to state that â€Å"[when] women were ask to do a maths test in a swimsuitShow MoreRelatedSchool Uniforms Persuasive Essay1069 Words   |  5 Pagesmany schools around the world enforce uniforms, requiring students to wear specific clothing. School uniforms, which was first established in 16th century England, are a topic of much debate in the public school s ystem of the United States. Many people feel that uniforms reduce competition among students and bring a sense of unity in school. People who are against school uniforms think that they prevent students from expressing themselves and inhibits creativity. Many students dislike school uniformsRead MoreSchool Uniforms Persuasive Essay1001 Words   |  5 PagesMake a Difference? If schools could automatically have more safety, a stronger sense of unity within students, and higher self esteem for every individual student at a minimal cost without transgressing any laws, or stepping over students rights it is doubtful that many would turn up their nose to all of these things. There is no difference between this situation and the benefits that school dress codes would provide. While the majority of public schools do not require uniforms, the ones that do reportRead MorePersuasive Essay On School Uniforms979 Words   |  4 PagesThe age old argument of whether or not uniforms and dress codes should be enforced in schools seems to never conclude. The issue of appropriate clothing in schools is controversial and provoking. Many argue that abolishing a student’s choice in their attire violates their freedom of expression. Students use what they wear to express themselves; their clothing gives them a sense of a unique style and identity. Others argue that pe rmitting students to wear whatever clothing they like can create unnecessaryRead MoreSchool Uniforms Persuasive Essay1127 Words   |  5 PagesAssociation (2016), an estimated 160,000 students missed school every day due to a fear of violence and harassment from their peers. Students at many schools, including my own, have become more divided. This division has resulted in bullying especially towards students that stand out from the crowd with the way they look and dress. Along with continuing the anti-bullying programs already in place, public schools should implement a school uniform in order to reduce divisions among students, which shouldRead MorePersuasive Essay On School Uniforms1422 Words   |  6 PagesCatholic elementary school, middle school, and high school. I found it easier to attend and focus on school when wearing the same clothes as everyone else. Today, tiny southern towns even to the nations largest cities, public school uniforms have become so common this year t hat in many areas, they are no longer the exception, but the rule (Lewin â€Å"Dress for Success: Public School Uniforms†). Imagine a parent’s comfort in knowing their child was being treated as an equal at school each and every dayRead MorePersuasive Essay On School Uniforms717 Words   |  3 Pages The idea of school uniforms has been a vital point within school districts for a long time now. As a parent with two kids within the school system, it is a popular trend amongst schools as both my children’s schools require for their student to wear uniform. However, more recently, students as well as parents are beginning to disagree with the enforcement with school uniforms as they believe uniforms are possibly taking away the right of self-expression for students. Although this is a valid complaintRead MoreSchool Uniforms Persuasive Essay1470 Words   |  6 PagesBenefits of Uniform Adoption in Public Schools Ever wonder what it would look like to have all students wearing the same white polo shirt, black pants, and a district sweater walking in the hallway? Nowadays, public school and many districts are discussing the possibilities of enforcing the uniform policy. In most places, many private schools already require students to have their mandatory uniforms; however, there are only a few public schools adopting this mandatory school-uniform policesRead MorePersuasive Essay On School Uniforms1671 Words   |  7 Pages Hari Mainali South University School Uniform â€Æ' Abstract Freedom of dress is violated by restricting on school uniform. A school and university have their own dress code which does not require a particular dress. Some researcher and scholar suggest misbehavior in the student are the result of banning uniform. But misbehavior is what they acquired in their life. Banning uniform, student can exercise their right to express themselves freely. Student will be able to focus on education and saveRead MoreSchool uniform persuasive essay2016 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿ School Uniforms: Agree or not? Uniforms are globally used at schools around the world, especially schools in Asia. In Asia, the policy of wearing uniform enforces strongly during school hours and whenever at schools. The policy is enforced because schools want to teach discipline to their students and prevent unanticipated troubles at school. The policy of school uniforms is not completely implemented in the United States, especially public schools. According to the US Department of Education,Read MorePersuasive Essay On School Uniforms1889 Words   |  8 Pagesfor all schools to implement school uniforms in the classroom for all students. Schools everywhere across the America are changing their policies due to changes of their dress code. Whether it be due to vulgar language, inappropriate content, or the same outfit for all students, this is becoming more popular across America. In a recent study done by Statistic Brain it has shown that twenty three percent of countries across of America have implemented a pol icy that requires school uniforms. The school

The Influence of the Internet on our younger Generation free essay sample

Mass media in general but especially today’s Internet plays a big role in our society. Our global communication is functioning based on the Internet as it transmits all kinds of information. The American Academy of Pediatrics shows that according to a study, teenagers spend in average up to 11 hours a day with variety of different media. For up to 1.5 hours from this time, they are sitting in front of a computer, which seams not so much. However, in the last few years Internet became more popular and there are different opportunities to use it, because of the progress in technology. Except of using the computer, teenagers have access to Internet on smartphones and tablets. Even though there are positive aspects, the Internet has a bad influence to teenagers’ lives in different ways. On one side, the Internet gives new opportunities and it is probably the greatest invention in the 20th Century. We will write a custom essay sample on The Influence of the Internet on our younger Generation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Teenager, which the biggest part are students, are able to gather more detailed information for school or the private life, because of the quick access to information and knowledge online. Furthermore a lot of colleges offer to their students online classes, which requires an access to Internet. As a reason of the Internet invention, communication did a huge step forward. Teenagers are able to use e-mail, Skype or other social networks to communicate with friends all over the world. In connection with that, the Internet has a negative impact on the social life of teenagers. The way teenager communicate has totally changed. According to Brent Staples, â€Å"†¦ the heavy use of the Net actually isolates younger socially connected people who are unwittingly allowing time online to replace face-to-face interaction with their families and friends†. This causes not just problems in the social live, but it also discourage teenager to be physically active, which affects in a bad influence to the health. Which means that the Internet is often saying what is right or wrong. Positiv: online shopping Negative: Violence, major source for entertainment, websites that contain violent, porn, and other inappropriate information. Not every information is true